Structure & Coherence

Structure & Coherence:
Paragraph-Level Transitions

If you've worked through the paragraph structure discussion and exercises and the topic-strings discussion and exercises, You're now ready to consider transitions—another piece of the coherence puzzle. Transitions are those words and phrases like and, in addition to, however, therefore, in other words, and so on. For some, transitional words and phrases are the entire method of achieving coherence. However, the theory of this chapter is that if you've managed paragraph (and document) structure and topic strings well, transitions are not such an overwhelmingly critical tool.

Transitions and Logical Connections

Transitions overtly indicate the logic connecting two ideas. Those ideas can be expressed in two separate sentences, but those same ideas can be expressed in two clauses within a single sentence. Consider the transitions and logic connecting the parts of the following sentences:

The British government maintained that American colonials were "virtually" represented and did not need to be consulted, but most Americans rejected that idea.

In this sentence, two clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction but. The logic connecting the two clauses is contrastive.

When the price of tobacco skyrocketed after a bad crop in 1758, the Virginia legislature passed the Two-Penny Act to stop clerical salaries from inflating.

In this sentence, the initial subordinating conjunction When connects this dependent clause to the main clause. The logic here is temporal (indicating a time relationship).

The Battle of Lexington and Concord, which took place April 19, 1775, was the first fighting of the American Revolutionary War, and immediately the news aroused the 13 colonies to call out their militias and send troops to besiege Boston.

These two independent clauses are joined by the coordinating conjunction and; the logic is additive.

Although they both function as transitions by indicating logical connections, conjunctions operate within sentences; transitions, as we use the term from this point forward, operate to connect whole separate sentences to each other.

Transitions and Paragraph Structure

Transitional words and phrases can be divvied up between coordinate and subordinate relationships between sentences.

Transitions for coordinate sentences. One set of transitional words and phrases signal coordinate relationship between sentences:

Additive (and, also, in addition, moreover) Signals information at the same level of the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence explains Mars' location in the solar system; the next, using an additive transition, might explain its orbital characteristics.

Temporal (next, then, afterwards, later) Signals another event related chronlogically to the preceding sentence, which also described an event. For example, one sentence describes one mission to Mars; the next, using a temporal transition, might describe another such mission.

Comparative (similarly, likewise) Signals that something in the current sentence is similar to something in the preceding sentence. For example, the atmosphere of Mars is described in one sentence; in the next sentence, using a comparative transition, similarities to the atmosphere of Earth are discussed.

Contrastive (in contrast, on the other hand, instead) Signals that something in the current sentence is being contrasted to something in the preceding sentence. For example, the atmosphere of Jupiter is described in one sentence; in the next sentence, using a contrastive transition, the atmosphere of Earth is described for contrast.

Alternative (or, on the other hand) Signals that something in the current sentence is being offered as an alterative to something in the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence might explain one theory about Mars "canals"; the next sentence, using an alternative transition, might explain another theory about the canals.

Spatial (above, below, beyond, in front of) Signals that something in the current sentence is related spatially to something in the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence might say something about Earth; the next sentence, using a spatial transition, might say something about Mars.

Transitions for subordinate sentences. Another set of transitional words and phrases signal subordinate relationship between sentences:

Causal (consequently, as a result, therefore, thus, hence) Signals the something in the preceding sentence is either a cause or an effect of something in the current sentence. For example, one sentence might describe the "canals" on Mars; the next, using a causal transition, might explain one theory about how they were formed.

Illustrative (for example, for instance) Signals that the current sentence provides an example illustrating something in the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence might state that there are in fact other "solar" systems besides our own; the next sentence, using an illustrative transition, might describe the the Alpha Centauri system as an example.

Specifying (specifically, to be precise) Signals that the current sentence provides specific details related to something in the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence might state that Mars has the highest known mountain in the solar system; the next sentence, using a specifying transitions, might provide specific details about that mountain.

Reiterative (in other words, in simple terms, to put it another way) Signals that the current sentence restates something in the preceding sentence, perhaps in simpler terms. For example, one sentence might explain that observation of Mars is best at perihelic oppositions; the following sentence, using a reiterative transition such as "in other words," might explain in simpler terms what the preceding sentence means.

Transitions in Action

As with everything involving paragraph structure and topic strings, there is no reliable set of guidelines on how and when to use transitional words and phrases. Transitional words and phrases are not used in any systematic or predictable way, even in the most structured of writing. However, here are some theories about how writers use transitions—albeit untested:

Blurred, distorted topic strings: In the paragraph structure and topic-strings discussions, you've seen how patterns are rarely exact. Sometimes, the new topic insists on beginning the paragraph, forcing the old topic toward the end of the sentence. Sometimes, the reference to the old topic is buried in a pronoun reference (like its or this). Used at the junctions between sentences like these, transitional words and phrases can reduce the amount of readers' mental effort by indicating the logical relationships between the sentences.
Subordinate relationships: Sensing subordinate relationships between sentences is likely to require more mental effort on the part of readers. Thus, it is likely that you'd find more transitional words and phrases used to guide readers across a subordinate connection between two sentences.
Writer's discretion: And finally, a writer might decide that the connection between two sentences, for whatever reason, is not clear enough, necessitating transitional words and phrases.

Here are some examples of transitions in action:

Rather than giving names to the features of Mars that they mapped, Beer and Mädler simply designated them with letters. For example, Meridian Bay was feature "a".

Rather than giving names to the features of Mars that they mapped, Beer and Mädler simply designated them with letters. Today, features on Mars are named from a number of sources. Large albedo features retain many of the older names, but are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features.

Features on Mars are named from a number of sources. Large albedo features retain many of the older names. However, these names are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features.

By the later 1950s, observations showed that the "canals" do not in fact exist and could be explained as optical illusions. Still, of all the planets in our solar system other than Earth, Mars is the most likely to harbor liquid water and perhaps life.

In 2004, NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity detected various minerals such as hematite and goethite which usually only form in the presence of water. As a result, scientist believe that liquid water existed at one time on the surface of Mars.

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Additive (and, also, in addition, moreover)	Signals information at the same level of the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence explains Mars' location in the solar system; the next, using an additive transition, might explain its orbital characteristics.
Temporal (next, then, afterwards, later)	Signals another event related chronlogically to the preceding sentence, which also described an event. For example, one sentence describes one mission to Mars; the next, using a temporal transition, might describe another such mission.
Comparative (similarly, likewise)	Signals that something in the current sentence is similar to something in the preceding sentence. For example, the atmosphere of Mars is described in one sentence; in the next sentence, using a comparative transition, similarities to the atmosphere of Earth are discussed.
Contrastive (in contrast, on the other hand, instead)	Signals that something in the current sentence is being contrasted to something in the preceding sentence. For example, the atmosphere of Jupiter is described in one sentence; in the next sentence, using a contrastive transition, the atmosphere of Earth is described for contrast.
Alternative (or, on the other hand)	Signals that something in the current sentence is being offered as an alterative to something in the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence might explain one theory about Mars "canals"; the next sentence, using an alternative transition, might explain another theory about the canals.
Spatial (above, below, beyond, in front of)	Signals that something in the current sentence is related spatially to something in the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence might say something about Earth; the next sentence, using a spatial transition, might say something about Mars.

Causal (consequently, as a result, therefore, thus, hence)	Signals the something in the preceding sentence is either a cause or an effect of something in the current sentence. For example, one sentence might describe the "canals" on Mars; the next, using a causal transition, might explain one theory about how they were formed.
Illustrative (for example, for instance)	Signals that the current sentence provides an example illustrating something in the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence might state that there are in fact other "solar" systems besides our own; the next sentence, using an illustrative transition, might describe the the Alpha Centauri system as an example.
Specifying (specifically, to be precise)	Signals that the current sentence provides specific details related to something in the preceding sentence. For example, one sentence might state that Mars has the highest known mountain in the solar system; the next sentence, using a specifying transitions, might provide specific details about that mountain.
Reiterative (in other words, in simple terms, to put it another way)	Signals that the current sentence restates something in the preceding sentence, perhaps in simpler terms. For example, one sentence might explain that observation of Mars is best at perihelic oppositions; the following sentence, using a reiterative transition such as "in other words," might explain in simpler terms what the preceding sentence means.